Stonehenge: The Circle of Kings
By: Merlyn
The circular monument known as Stonehenge has fascinated man for countless ages. What was it for and who built it are the commonest of questions directed at the experts in the subject.
Scientists, scholars and men of learning through out the ages have presented their theories but none have convinced the masses that their theory is the one and true explanation.
I do not for see the presentation of my personal theory as one that will elicit much discussion on the matter for it is much to simple in form and reason to be considered as a serious threat to the "experts" in the field.
My definition of an expert is one who knows all there is to know about a subject. Since we know very little about the actually people who constructed Stonehenge then there are no experts in this field. We are all just informed amateurs guessing and supposing what might really have happened. We can only hope that at some point in the future science will provide us with the answers and solve one of the greatest mysteries of our earth.
We do know many things about the actual physical site and archeology has provided us with some very tantalizing clues as to the origin of some of the materials and some tentative dates of their construction.
It is accepted fact that some of the stones were transported in some manner from the western part of Wales and others from a site only thirty some miles from the henge. A lot of time and energy was expended on this so the purpose of the stones must have significant meaning to those that erected them.
Yet the stones came only many years after the initial construction on the site.
The circular ditch and supporting berm (earthen bank) were the first items on the site. There was also found to be evidence that a number of wooden posts were placed into the ground just inside the berm.
It has been ascertained from antler bones that were used to dig the ditch and left lying there when they stopped working, that the ditch was dug around the year 3000 BC give or take fifty years.
There is a prominent gap in the ditch, berm and wooden postholes facing the east. This indicates a form of entranceway into the circle. A smaller gap appears in the south face but appears to have been modified at some point after the original construction. The southern gap is not as clean or well defined at the eastern one.
These antler bones were very significant in the dating of the site. They are consistent with the type of tools available at the time and have been found in many other Neolithic sites around Briton.
So we have a ditch and a circular wall of earth made from the dirt from the ditch with a circle of wooden posts inside the earthen wall. There is only one entrance and that is from the east. What we have here is a classic defensive fortification or campsite.
I have read that the "experts" have discounted this theory, that it does not match any fortification they are aware of in Briton. I say give me a break! It matches every major fortification ever built by any armed group.
The Bushmen of Africa used to encircle their campsites at night with thorn bushes to protect themselves from animals. It is a concept that goes back many thousands of years and practiced by many different cultures. The idea of surrounding yourself with a physical barrier in times of trouble is one that early man knew quite a bit about. So don't tell me that the idea is unheard of. It is the scale of the defensive works that has never been seen before the idea has been around for quite a while.
The first thing you have to look at is where the henge is built. Salisbury plain is a low rolling plain surrounded by hills. The henge is situated strategically in the middle or close to it, of the plain. No one can approach the henge from any direction with out being spotted from a great distance. Any one defending a position in the henge would have ample warning of attack.
Also a circular design gives the defender the opportunity to protect itself on all sides with out weakening itself. The defenders can stand literally shoulder-to-shoulder and back-to-back and never place an unguarded side to the enemy. Any military analyst worth his salt will agree to this. The British Army used very similar tactics (the square) successfully for many years.
Why the ditch? It was obviously never meant to hold water; it was designed as a dry ditch. You have to remember how battles were fought in those days to answer this question.
The ditch and its accompanying earthen berm force any military force that wishes to attach the site to enter the ditch and place them self in a position below the defenders standing on the top of the berm. At a time when weapons consisted of hand held spears, sticks and stones and maybe the occasional antler fashioned into a weapon, fighting would have been basically hand to hand. A man attempting to crawl out of a ditch and climb an earthen berm leaves himself exposed to dreadful harm from those standing above him. Stones, clubs and spears would make short work of men hindered in this way.
The wooden postholes inside the berm were a secondary line of defense. If the attackers managed to make their way through the ditch and over the berm the defenders could retreat behind the wooden posts. The attackers would have to pass between the wooden posts to follow this would again put them in a position of disadvantage. They would have to go between the post where the ability to swing their weapons would be hindered again giving the defenders another advantage. It is very simple yet effective for the time period.
As for attacking the site from the main and only entrance, the attackers would be forced to follow the path of least resistance, between the ditch and berm and posts. A space only wide enough for several men at a time. This would again force the enemy to come to the defender under his terms.
Everything about this first construction at the site screams to me that it is a defensive fortification but who would be so organized as to need and build such a structure in 3000 BC?
From what we know of these times it is inferred that man gathered in small extended family sized units, groups of no more than twenty or thirty individuals. It is also thought that these groups were mostly nomadic in nature, as the countryside would not support such a group for extended periods of time. These groups were thought to be hunter-gatherers, people who would hunt small animals and forage for berries and roots.
I think that the evidence of the existence of Stonehenge is proof that this is not so. Who ever built Stonehenge was a well-organized group of men under the direction of a strong and intelligent leader. They had to come from somewhere and I feel they originated from the area of the Welsh Mountains. (I will expand on this a little later.)
There is one glaring problem with the theory of the henge being a defensive fortification and it is this; there is no archeological evidence to show that the site was ever inhabited. Not by a large band of armed men and certainly not for an extended period of time. There is also no evidence that any major battles occurred in the immediate area, though this is not conclusive.
Now I am faced with the question of why some one would go to all the trouble and effort to build such a site and then not use it.
Now we are still talking about the original first phase of construction, the circular ditch, berm and postholes.
Why was the time taken to dig a ditch with deer antlers and pile the earth up inside the site if not for protection? I can only come to one conclusion; it was a safe meeting place for leaders of rival tribes to gather.
Use your imagination here and envision the leaders of all the major tribes travelling to the site from all directions.
The tribes would make camp on the hills surrounding the plains where they could see the site and all the other tribes camped around it. They would be able to watch closely as their leader would descend onto the plain and proceed to the henge. They would be able to view any groups approaching the henge from any direction from the hills and could rush to the aid of their leader if treachery was observed on the part of any of the other tribes.
The leaders would enter the henge only during daylight and return each evening to their campsites on the surrounding hills. This would explain the lack of archeological evidence of habitation. No one spent more than a few hours inside the circle at any one time. It was simply a meeting place of the Kings.
The tribal leaders could also feel safe in that they too could view any approaching groups from any direction. They could stand within this circle and face their rivals with out putting their backs to any of them. Discussions could take place with little or no fear of deception.
This, my friends, is what I consider to be the original meeting of what later came to known as "The Round Table".
***
I have probably upset some people with my rather insolent suggestion that Stonehenge is the original Round Table but let me try and explain.
Everyone knows of the legend of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. It has existed in myth and mystery for hundreds of years. I am one who believes that legends are usually based in one form or another in actual facts.
King Arthur really did exist, not as a single person but a combination of two Welsh Kings separated only by time. This has been proven beyond a doubt by two rather intrepid investigators by the names of Alan Wilson and Baram Blackett.
These two men, over a period of almost fifty years have scoured the pages of many ancient manuscripts and searched the land for obscure gravesites and battlefields. They began their search for the real King Arthur on separate levels and came together to combine their knowledge. What they discovered is now slowly being accepted as fact, as other researchers double-check their sources and information.
King Arthur was not a single man he was the culmination of two men, one from the 4th century AD and the other from the 6th century. Both Welsh kings or more correctly kings of Khymru clans or tribes (the original name of the Welsh). The deeds and stories of these men were told and retold over the years and some how became entangled as one.
My point in this is to show that the practice of the Welsh tribes meeting to choose a person who would lead them into battle as their Warlord was a common practice.
Farther back than any written records go the legends and fables show there is one common factor amongst the stories of the Khymru and that is the fact that they knew that as single tribes they could be easily defeated but united they posed a formidable foe. Time and time again in the ancient legends and stories we hear of a leader chosen by the tribes to lead them into battle. And time and time again history shows us that the Welsh tribes combined under a single leader with stood invasion and wrecked havoc amongst the aggressors.
When Julius Caesar invaded the Isle of Briton it was the Welsh tribes who beat them back into their boats and forced them to flee. And again the next year when they tried again it was the combined forces of all the Welsh tribes that brought the roman legions to their knees. It was only through the leadership of their Warlord or Pendragon that the Khymric tribes were triumphant.
No one knows when or how this practice started it is as ancient as the stones that lie within the ring of earth.
The practice of the tribes meeting and choosing a single leader in times of war is the basis for my theory. And what better place to meet and make these decisions than a place of neutrality chosen for its secure setting.
One of the major clues to the identity of the users of the henge is the blue stones. It is my theory that the stones were transported from the Welsh Mountains to the site to represent each of the major tribes, one stone for each tribe, and one leader for each tribe.
If you were to make a very long and wild stretch you may see the similarities of this arrangement to that of our modern parliamentary system. Each tribe being represented by a single man in a meeting where all are equal and decisions are made as a whole and not singular. The major difference being that the leaders of these tribes was not chosen by popular vote but by actions and prowess.
This was a council of war where all parties were concerned with one thing the preservation of their lands and their way of life. They had come together for a single purpose and this was to defeat the threat that faced them all, for they were of the thought that if one tribe fell the rest would follow unless they banded together as one in a unified army. This was very progressive thinking for the time and where the concept came from is any ones guess. Needless to say it is a practice that was carried on for many hundreds of years with great success, for the area now known as Wales has never been known to be conquered at any time in history.
By now I have probably upset more of you but think about this. The original concept of the Round Table was one of equality and honor. Stonehenge exemplifies this in every way. Here men of arms met as equals and in safety to discuss the saving of their lands and ways of life. And unified into a single unit to defend these principals, what is of greater honor than this? Men cast aside their petty differences for a common goal and pledged their lives to the protection of their homeland. This would certainly rank this site as sacred to any that believe in these ideas.
It is no wonder that as time passed the construction on the site became more permanent for it had become, as it is today a monument. A sign to all men that when the whole basis of your society is threatened men can meet and join together and work as one to save it.
Stonehenge: Alternative Views
The majority of Englishmen know the Salisbury Valley because of the ancient Stonehenge monument. However very few people know that the ruins are haunted by UFOs. In August 1957, a war game was held between the London garrison and the Royal Guards from Liverpool in the mentioned valley. According to the battle's conditions, the defending side (the London garrison) was equipped with five Centurion tanks. The tanks performed a defensive role: they maneuvered and fired at the center of the area. When the tanks were getting ready for the combat mission, the crew of one of the tanks reported that they saw a large, silver, cigar-shaped object; they reported that the tank was ready to open fire.
After the report, no more information could be obtained about the tank, and none of its traces could be found. The tank simply disappeared.
Really strange things occur around Stonehenge. One Englishman decided to fly a kite near Stonehenge. He stood on the bed of his pickup, and the kite flew up and up towards the sky. Suddenly, when the kite flew above the cromlech's edges, 150-200 yards from the car park, a strange unknown source of energy hurt the man's hands. The man lost his conscience and fell down from his car. His wounds healed only after six months.
There is another even more fantastic phenomenon. Once, a group of people heard some strange sounds from the direction of the stones. These people immediately left, but the strange sound went up into the sky with a buzzing. Then, these people saw something resembling a huge wheel of fire, turning as it flew up into the sky. Later, after they returned home, they saw a female figure dressed in yellow clothes. The woman's hair was long, and her coiffure resembled an ancient Egyptian one. This even gave them the impression that they witnessed a struggle between good and the evil.
One Czech artist says that levitation of sounds was used when Stonehenge was built; the levitation was caused by the strengths of sound and thought.
Tony Wedd discovered a very important element of new discoveries: he discovered a connection between ancient field lines of the area and UFOs. The cromlech area resembles an UFO when seen from the air. Circular embankments and ditches are an exterior rim of the UFO, the Aubrey holes are the illuminators, and the internal stone ring is the UFO's cabin. The central stone resembles a prominent cabin, and the so-called blue stones are humanoids.
The rather unknown small town of Waminster, situated between Stonehenge and Glastonbury, is the center of a garrison surrounded by military emplacements. Is this the reason why the place is so often observed by UFOs? On the whole, the connection between UFOs and the military can be interpreted in two ways. A positive one: extraterrestrials believe that the nuclear emplacements pose a danger to the existence of people, which is why they are keeping their eyes on us. Another, and rather strange, suggestion is that even if extraterrestrials and the military don't closely cooperate, they have probably established a policy of concealing the truth. At least, they have decided not to reveal their secrets to people of the Earth.
Although Stonehenge is owned by civilians (it belongs to the Royal family), it is surrounded by closed military zones. Glastonbury's peace and quiet are not disturbed yet. Over Waminster, UFOs frequently follow a flight path from the east to west, from Stonehenge to Glastonbury. In this place, people have observed UFO landings, giants, sounds of invisible pedestrians, and even exotic space perfume left after a UFO flew away. However, this phenomenon isn't new. Even John Aubrey in his notes in 1670 mentioned a strange ghost seen not far from Sprinchester. When the ghost was asked whether it was a good or an evil spirit, no response followed, and the creature disappeared, leaving an unusual smell and melodious chime after itself.
In 1954, many years before alternative archeology appeared, one photographer saw a column of light in his pictures. It was like a searchlight ray that hit the cloudless sky from central Trilit.
Two obvious instances of UFO presence in the area were registered not so long ago. In 1968, Arthur Shuttlewood saw an UFO close to a circle of fire that emerged from Stonehenge. When the man decided to approach the strange object, it shot straight up. Late one evening in November 1977, blazing fires were seen. They moved across the sky in a line, and they could hover and suddenly change direction. At that, the fires didn't move fluently like planes, by in a very energetic and sudden manner. The compasses showed wrong directions and the picture of a portable TV set was unstable. The fires were filmed with a movie camera.
No wonder the military has great interest in the mysterious area. The searchlight ray was obviously directed at an UFO. Other researchers, Anthony Roberts for instance, discovered that folklore and the traditional history of the Ancient World contain many records of giants, Atlantis, and flying dragons, which were more than likely paleo-UFOs. If you follow the position of speculative mythology, this old evidence becomes perfectly clear.
At the same time, orthodox archeologists still resist new ideas of those whom they call "dishonest apologists of industrial civilization."
However, the alternative study of Stonehenge is popular not only in England, but also in California, where Donald Cyr publishes Stonehenge Viewpoint newspaper. He bases his publications on the dome hypothesis suggested by researcher Eisen Veil, who said that there is a layer of ice crystals high above in the atmosphere. When light is reflected by the crystals, bright shining arcs of 22 and 44 degrees can appear around the Sun and the Moon. Such arcs and even whole circles can be seen under definite conditions. Those who wish to see this effect can use the Marc-1 and Marc-2 devices for it. This device allows one to see shining circles around any metal construction, around Egypt pyramids, and Stonehenge.
Translated by Maria Gousseva
The Mystery of the African 'Stonehenge'
What ARE these mysterious ruins in Zimbabwe that include a crumbling ring of stone walls and platforms about 240 meters in length? They have long been thought to be the remains of an ancient palace, but a South African scientist has a new idea: The ruins are an African "Stonehenge" that once served as an astronomical observatory to track eclipses, solstices, and an elusive exploding star, reports CNN.
The walls of the ruins, called Great Zimbabwe, are arranged in such a way that Richard Wade of South Africa's Nkwe Ridge Observatory is convinced the enclosure was used much like Great Britain's Stonehenge. "The importance of Great Zimbabwe is that it was the capital of the only known sub-Saharan African Empire that lasted almost 1,000 years. Everyone in southern Africa somehow relates to this nucleus cultural complex," Wade told CNN.
Here is Wade's evidence that Great Zimbabwe was an astronomical site:
-Several of the stone monoliths line up with specific bright stars in the constellation Orion as they rise on the morning of the shortest day of the year, which is the winter solstice.
-One of the monoliths contains markings that coincide with orbital patterns of Earth and Venus. This monolith could have been used to forecast eclipses.
-The specific purpose of a special tower in the complex has long baffled historians. Wade thinks it was constructed to observe an exploding star in about 1300 AD. "This large conical tower in the great enclosure stands directly in line with the rising supernova remnant when seen from the observation platform and court area of the time," Wade wrote in a paper that he will submit to the journals Science and Scientific American.
CNN notes that although written historic records make no mention of the supernova in 1300, modern telescope observations prove it happened then. Wade isn't bothered by the lack of ancient documentation of the supernova, since there were few literate cultures in the region at that time. But oral legends passed on to this day give the supernova some credence. Wade told CNN that the Sena people of Zimbabwe hold that their ancestors migrated from the north by following an unusually bright star in the southern skies.
--Cathryn Conroy
All Copyrights © are acknowledged. Material reproduced here is for educational and research purposes only.
Mary Hill Washington ( Above )
Birth of a new Stonehenge theory
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
PAT HAGAN
IT'S a mystery that has puzzled historians for generations. But now perhaps the most extraordinary explanation of all has been put forward for the mysterious stone-circles of Stonehenge - that they bear an uncanny resemblance to the female sexual organs.
The theory, proposed by Professor Anthony Perks from the department of obstetrics and gynaecology at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, is that the layout of the most famous megalithic monument in Europe is based on the human vulva and the organs surrounding the opening of the birth canal.
Its real significance, argues Prof Perks in the latest edition of the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, is that Stonehenge was built to symbolise birth at the end of the Ice Age, when infant mortality was much higher than it is now.
He even predicts that if archaeologists were to dig at the centre of the stone circle, they may discover the body of a child in the area that represents the birth canal.
Many theories have been put forward previously, from Stonehenge being a temple at which to worship heavenly bodies to a docking station for aliens from outer space.
But the latest interpretation is based on the layout of the giant stones. According to Prof Perks, the outer ring of stones represents the outer edge of a woman's labia and the altar stone is meant to signify the clitoris.
The theory, he admits, is controversial, but he says the evidence supporting Stonehenge as a symbol of life is strong. "Stonehenge was a place of life and birth, not death, a place that looked towards the future."
WHERE DRUIDS WALKED
13:27 - 28 February 2003
Hundreds of acres of archaeologically rich farmland next to two of the country's greatest prehistoric monuments have been given special protection, it was revealed yesterday. Five farmers have signed an agreement saving land next to Stonehenge and Avebury stone circles from potential damage by intensive farming.
Abutting the joint Stonehenge/Avebury World Heritage Site, the land contains a wealth of archaeological treasures ranging from burial mounds to ancient field systems.
Now, they will be grassed over to become wildlife rich buffer zones to protect the archaeology just beneath the surface.
Three farmers at Stonehenge and two at Avebury have signed countryside stewardship agreements specially tailored for the prehistoric sites.
The initiative was launched by Environment Minister Michael Meacher in October with the aim of transforming arable farmland in sensitive spots into grassland.
Farmers were encouraged to enter a 10-year agreement under the scheme, with payments from £20 to £555 per hectare (almost 2.5 acres).
Like other country stewardship schemes, there will also be widespread conservation benefits, particularly for wild flowers, rare birds and insects.
By the end of this year, important sites including Normanton Down Barrows, the North Kite Enclosure and Durrington Down Barrows near Stonehenge and Cuckoo Field near Woodhenge will be grassed over.
The West Kennet Long Barrow at Avebury will also be shielded by the creation of grass margins around its edges.
The first farmer to sign up was Rachel Hosier, 37, of 1,030-acre Boreland Farm less than a mile south of Stonehenge.
Some 60 hectares (148 acres) of farmland will revert to grassland while Rachel will also manage three two-hectare plots to provide nesting areas for threatened stone curlew. A further eight hectares will be left fallow for breeding lapwings.
Rachel, who runs the mixed farm with her father, said: "Obviously we are very much aware of the archaeology here.
"Our land contains a mother barrow where druids perform ceremonies, an ancient lake cemetery and the North Kite enclosure. We have also always believed in farming with the needs of wildlife in mind and have been working with the RSPCA to look after stone curlews and other birds."
Does Russia's Ryazan Have Stonehenge of It's Own?
The central part of Russia's Ryazan region is famous for its advantageous geographical location. At all times different peoples passed across the place either from the west to the east, or from the south to the north. The wonderful height over the junction of the Russian rivers Oka and Pronya received people of different cultures living there, the fact has been proved by archaeologists after numerous excavations held in the region. However, archaeological excavations held in Spasskaya Luka last summer were a surprise even for worldly-wise participants of expeditions organized by the State History Museum. The highest point of the hill covered a 4,000-year sanctuary resembling Stonehenge.
Ilya Ahmedov, the head of the expedition, researcher from the State History Museum's department of archaeological monuments, says that nothing of this kind has been ever found in the Ryazan region or in the nearby woods. "If we look at the excavations site on the map, we'll see it is a circle of three meters in diameter. The circle is made by poles of 0.5 meter thick placed at an equal distance from each other. There is a large rectangular hole and a post in the center of the circle. It-s quite natural that wooden poles didn't survive, but we can see distinct round holes in the places where they stood. Possibly, there were four poles; but the river banks are destroyed by a gully there, that is why part of the pagan temple collapsed. Several meters to the east from this site the excavations revealed one more hole with a similar pole. There is also a pole in the south, it was discovered three years ago, but researchers failed to explain its character. It's likely that there is another line of poles some ten meters from the sanctuary. This season we plan to find out whether it exists or not.
In 1979, some other expedition performed excavations in this area. The researchers dug a trench which revealed only the poles, but they failed to explain the meaning of the discovery. Within the circle, two couples of the poles make up gates. Sunset can be seen through the gates if an observer stands in the center of the circle. One more pole outside the circle points at the sunrise."
The structure of the monument suggested archaeologists an idea that it could be built for astronomic purposes; and articles found on the excavation site prove that devotions had been performed there. We found a small ceramic vessel with delicate ornamental design in the central hole. Short lines of the design make up zigzag resembling the sun rays; the rows of wavy lines symbolize water. Bronze Age specialists admitted that the vessel belonged to that very age. They say that the whole of the construction we have discovered can be dated back to the late third v early second millennia B.C. It's astonishing that the vessel was made in accordance with the steppe people's tradition who lived in southern Eurasia at that period. In the words of Ilya Ahmedov, the vessel resembles articles found in Sintashta, the legendary city of ancient Aryan people in Siberia. The resemblance of the vessel to vessels belonging to the cultures living in the Volga and Ural areas was obvious.
Two vessels of quite a different aspect were found in holes behind the central poles; they were large, with thin sides and round bottoms, without any ornament at all. They were more crude as compared with the steppe vessel. Ware of this kind was made by forest people who lived in the area in the Bronze Age (4 thousand years ago). It is strange that articles made in different traditions were kept in one place. The researchers say, it's highly likely the articles denote the very rise of some culture. "We may imagine that steppe people of Iranian origin came from the east and merged with the forest people living there; the forest people were probably of Perm or Finno-Ugric origin. The merger was probably on a confessional or a military basis, the same way it happened with Huns and Alans."
The researchers say that pagan priests observed not only sunrises and sunsets in that place. In the center of one of the holes outside the pagan temple they found pieces of a vessel and human bones placed close to the vessel. These are signs of sacrifice made among the mysterious poles.
In a couple of millennia, during the Great Resettlement of peoples Finno-Ugric people came to that region. They were perfectly aware of the sanctity of the place and made a cemetery there. None of the burials from the large burial ground damaged the observatory. It means that the religious construction could be seen perfectly well; the huge polls were certainly broken, but the high hill was distinct. It is astonishing that archaeologists have come across the unusual monument now.
The sanctuary discovered in the Russian city of Ryazan is very old and actually unique. Similar constructions were also discovered in the steppe zone and in the Ural tundra, but they are not so beautiful and complicated. Sanctuaries with poles of this kind started spreading in the European part since the end of the 1st millennium B.C.; they were discovered in Czechia and Slovakia where Celtic people lived.
The head of the archaeological expedition says that the discovery can be compared to Stonehenge which originally made of wood as well. however, any real kinship between the people who constructed Stonehenge and those who built the observatory in Ryazan is ruled out.
Translated by Maria Gousseva
20:05 2003-04-04
Stonehenge 'King' From Central Europe
By Discovery News
Feb. 11 Tests on an ancient skeleton found near Stonehenge last year trace its origins to Eastern Europe, suggesting that the "king" of Stonehenge was actually an Alpine immigrant.
Tests on the skeleton, found in a 4,300-year-old burial site in Amesbury, England, last May and dubbed the Amesbury Archer, revealed its origins in central Europe, refuting the theory that he was from ancient Britain, according to the British press.
Enamel in the skeleton's teeth was traced to Switzerland, Austria or Germany, according to London's Independent newspaper.
Andrew Fitzpatrick, a scientist from Wessex Archaeology deeply involved in the find, told the paper, "We have long suspected that it was people from the continent of Europe who initiated the trade that first brought metalworking to Britain, and the 'Archer' is an important discovery in confirming this.
"He would have been a very important person in the Stonehenge area and it is fascinating to think that someone from abroad probably modern-day Switzerland could well have played an important part in the construction of Britain's most famous archaeological site."
The richness of the man's grave told scientists last year that he was likely royalty in his time.
He was probably buried in full archer regalia, based on a slate wrist guard that was found next to his forearm, a bone pin next to his hip that may have held a leather cloak or mantle that has since deteriorated, and a copper knife, which probably was worn in a leather sheath across his chest.
Next to the skeleton, archaeologists found several flint tools, including fire starters, arrowheads and scrapers. The archer probably carried the tools in a small leather or cloth bag. Boar tusks, ancient pots known as Beakers, a smaller copper knife, another wrist guard, a shale belt ring, a whetstone, stone arrowheads, a red deer spatula, which would have been used to work the flints, and a pair of gold earrings were also found in the grave.
Tests on the gold ornaments dated them to 2,470 B.C., and tests on the copper knives showed that the metal came from Spain and France, evidence of wide trade networks during the early Bronze Age.
Study of the skeleton revealed that the man was between 35 and 45 when he died and was strongly build. A second skeleton of a younger man, 20 to 25, was also found on the site. Bone analysis showed that the younger man and the archer were related probably a father and son. But the younger man was raised in the Stonehenge area, as well as further North, reported the Independent.
New England's rock mysteries explored
WILLIAMSTOWN -- A nearly four decade-old group that formed to investigate "America's Stonehenge" and grew to probe other mysterious stone structures around New England is convening a May 2-4 weekend conference at the Williams Inn.
The New England Antiquities Research Association researches various rock structures -- from stone walls to standing stones and perched boulders to underground chambers -- and believes they must be documented in order to be studied and protected. The group has state chapters all over New England, and in New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Canada.
Some guest speakers at this conference will discuss interesting rock formations found within an hour's drive of North County.
"We're from all different backgrounds," said Roslyn Strong, 82, NEARA's coordinator in Maine and its newsletter editor and founding member. "What ties us together is that we are curious. We want to know why has this strange thing happened. Who could have done that?"
The non-profit started in 1964 when its founders began looking into the secrets behind America's Stonehenge, then called Mystery Hill, located in Salem, N.H. The site features man-made stone chambers estimated to be more than 4,000 years old. The group broke off from the site's owner after a disagreement over its use.
"It was personality. It was philosophy," said Strong. "And we are still upset at the fact that it's a tourist attraction that helps to get the whole idea dismissed."
Ever since, NEARA has been giving the smallest sites a high level of serious study from the boulders of Burnt Hill in Dalton to smaller, but no less mysterious, stone piles. Strong said the organization knows of sites that have never been farmed yet contain a couple hundred stone piles in a two-acre area. These are the sorts of places that pique the group's interest.
"I'm convinced that stone piles were built individually by Native Americans, one at a time, as a spiritual kind of thing that I don't think we have any conception of why it was an important thing to process," Strong said. "I feel very often building a mound or even a stone wall, it was a process."
The existence of stone piles, cave drawings, and the like has convinced NEARA that there is an ancient history in New England as rich as that of the American southwest, but it is too often ignored by the mainstream. In recent years, NEARA has examined the issue of early transatlantic crossing to this continent.
For some investigators, the study is its own reward. For others, the promise of finding a Phoenician coin in a stone chamber -- which apparently was reported to have happened in Vermont a few years back -- is a carrot that keeps them going.
"They feel like they're going to find the smoking gun," said Strong. "And we may. We keep looking."
NEARA has found that their theories can sometimes separate them from mainstream archaeologists, who, according to Strong, look at the organization with "an amused smile."
"Academics can't afford to do a serious study," said Strong. "And if they can't afford a serious study, how can they have an opinion? So the easiest thing is to not review it and don't get into it."
Despite the divide, NEARA does manage to attract some in the mainstream.
Bennett Stanford, one of the head anthropologists at the Smithsonian Institute, spoke at a NEARA conference in regard to his theories on Atlantic crossings as far back as 20,000 years ago.
Robert Schoch, a Boston University professor who will speak about the worldwide coincidence of pyramids at this year's gathering, is also a proponent of long-range voyaging originating from Asia.
The Williamstown event will feature much of interest to local residents.
This year, Eva Gilbavic, an educational psychologist from Leverett, will give a talk on the "Enigmatic Stonework in Northwestern Massachusetts," focusing on the Pioneer Valley.
James Parrish, an archaeologist who has been the curator at the Berkshire Museum and now works for the National Park Service, will speak about elevated Mahican ceremonial mounds in the Housatonic River Valley.
Archaeologist Edward J. Lenik will discuss the carvings of Dighton Rock in Berkley, which have at various times been attributed to Phoenicians, Vikings, Portuguese, and Native Americans.
The group also will sponsor a field trip Sunday morning of interesting sites around North County.
After the meeting, NEARA will be getting back to work, studying the sites that traditional organizations are inclined to ignore.
"You talk to somebody in the local historical society and they'll say 'Gee, isn't that interesting! Who do you think made that?'" said Strong. "And I'll say, 'We don't really know, we're studying it.' And they'll say 'Oh, but who do you think made it?' And I'll say, 'Well, the more I look, the more questions I have. I really don't have answers.' So then the next question is, 'Why would somebody do all that work with those big, heavy stones?' When you say, 'I really don't know, it doesn't make sense, does it?' they lose interest because they want a neat answer."
NEARA will hold its conference at the Williams Inn in Williamstown. Local residents and non-members are welcome to attend. Registration for the weekend is on Friday, May 2, 5 p.m.
For more information and a schedule of events, visit the NEARA Web site at www.neara.org .
The mystery grows
Scientists examine Stonehenge lichen
Maev Kennedy, arts and heritage correspondent
Thursday May 15, 2003
Scientists are puzzling over a fine crop of lichens, normally found only at the seaside, flourishing in the middle of Salisbury Plain on the ancient stones of Stonehenge.
There has been excited speculation that their discovery could establish the much debated origins of the stones: the oldest lichens, in the Antarctic, are believed to be up to 10,000 years old, so it is at least theoretically possible that lichens could have survived since the stone circle was built 4,500 years ago. But they suspect a more prosaic explanation.
"There was some speculation about the stones once being washed in salt water, but these lichens have been found inland before, on church towers on the Isle of Wight and other high places inland, and my feeling that the explanation is that there is just enough salt in the wind at Stonehenge to sustain them," Peter James, internationally recognised as an expert on lichens, said yesterday.
"Basically they're as tough as old boots, they can survive in the most extraordinary conditions."
The work will not damage the stones, and none of them will be moved. Most of the survey is through a minutely detailed examination, using magnifying glasses, of the rock surface, and tiny samples are being removed with scalpels. Mr James, who is a retired deputy keeper at the Natural History Museum, surveyed the Stonehenge lichens in the 1970s and 1990s. This week he has returned as a member of an expert team which is mounting the most comprehensive survey of the stones to date.
The team has already discovered seven nationally rare, and two very rare species: its list of species is 79 and rising as the examination continues.
Mr James said all the species he had previously noted were still flourishing, but the team was adding many more.
Standing stone is found to rival Stonehenge
Archaeologists working at the ancient Avebury stone circle have uncovered what could be one of the largest standing stones in the country.
Experts at English Heritage and the National Trust say the stone could weigh in at 100 tons, rivalling the largest megaliths at its fellow site in Wiltshire, Stonehenge.
The surprise discovery was made during work at the 4,500 year-old stone circle to straighten two stones known as the Cove, which have begun to lean over the last 300 years and experts feared might collapse.
The team from the Universities of Wales, Leicester and Southampton found the stone was buried much deeper beneath the ground than previously thought.
They found that one of the stones, which stands at 14ft high above the ground, exists at least 7ft below the surface and could possibly go down to 10ft.
Amanda Chadburn, Inspector of Ancient Monuments at English Heritage, which is the guardian of the stones, said: "We were amazed when we discovered that the stone went so much deeper than we expected.
"Ground penetrating radar and probing had suggested it existed to only about one-and-a-half to three feet below the surface. It is absolutely enormous and could weigh as much as the trilithon at Stonehenge."
Although it was originally planned to bring both stones at the Cove to an upright position, the investigations show that only the other stone - which is 16ft high above ground and predicted to exist to 4ft below ground, requires straightening.
The biggest stone will now be left, as it is considered safe. Rob Mimmack, property manager at Avebury for the National Trust, which owns the monument, said: "The stone is being fixed in the ground with lime concrete.
"Within two to three weeks we will be taking down the scaffolding and people will have access to the stones again for the first time since 1997 when they were fenced off for safety reasons."
Story filed: 16:14 Thursday 17th April 2003
Six more bodies found near 'King of Stonehenge' site
Archaeologists have discovered six more bodies near the grave of the so-called King of Stonehenge.
The remains of four adults and two children were found at a site in Amesbury, Wiltshire.
It is about half-a-mile from that of the Amesbury Archer, the Bronze Age man who was buried with the earliest gold found in Britain.
It is thought he might have had a major role in creating Stonehenge. Tests showed he was born in the Alps region in central Europe.
The latest bones discovered are some 4,500 years old - the same age as the Archer, said Salisbury-based Wessex Archaeology - which excavated the site during the digging of a trench this month.
Radiocarbon tests will be done to find out more precise dates for the burials but the people are believed to have lived during the building of Stonehenge. Wessex Archaeology say it is possible the bones are those of people from different generations.
The bones of the earlier burials were mixed up, but those of the later burials, a man and a child, were undisturbed. They said the grave, which is about three miles from Stonehenge, had narrowly missed being damaged by trench digging for electric cables and a water pipe.
The grave contained four pots in the Beaker style that is typical of the period, some flint tools, one flint arrowhead and a bone toggle for fastening clothing.
Dr Andrew Fitzpatrick, of Wessex Archaeology, said: "This new find is really unusual. It is exceptionally rare to find the remains of so many people in one grave like this in southern England.
"The grave is fascinating because we are seeing the moment when Britain was moving from the Stone Age into the Bronze Age, around 2,300BC."
Story filed: 15:11 Wednesday 21st May 2003
The vagina monoliths: Stonehenge was ancient sex symbol
Stone circle is exciting gynaecologists, reports Science Editor Robin McKie
Sunday July 6, 2003
Stonehenge has dominated the Wiltshire landscape for more than 4,000 years and is one of the world's most important heritage sites, but its purpose has remained a mystery.
Some researchers have claimed the stone circles were used as a giant computer; others that Stonehenge was an observatory for studying stars and predicting the seasons; and a few have even argued that its rings acted as a docking pad for alien spaceships.
Now a University of British Columbia researcher who has investigated the great prehistoric monument for several years has announced he has uncovered its true meaning: it is a giant fertility symbol, constructed in the shape of the female sexual organ.
'There was a concept in Neolithic times of a great goddess or Earth Mother,' says Anthony Perks, a gynaecologist who decided to investigate the idea that the circles could have symbolic anatomical links. 'Stonehenge could represent the opening by which the Earth Mother gave birth to the plants and animals on which ancient people so depended.'
According to Perks's analysis, published in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine , the critical events in the lives of the builders of Stonehenge - who began their work around 3,000 BC - were births and deaths in their families and community. But there is no evidence of any burials near Stonehenge, Perks adds. 'There is little sign of death; there are no tombs, because Stonehenge was a place of life and birth, not death, a place that looked to the future.'
Evidence that the monument was dominated by ideas about creation and regeneration has been overlooked until now, says Perks.
Take the inner circle, which consists of pairs of massive capped rock pillars, one of which is rough and the other carefully smoothed. 'To a biologist, the smooth and rougher stones arranged in pairs, united by heavy lintels, suggest that male and female, father and mother, joined together,' he states.
Even more convincing, says Perks, is the similarity between Stonehenge seen from above and the anatomy of the female sexual organ. His article includes a map of the former, which is compared, point by point, with a detailed diagram of the latter. Of these features, the most important concern the central empty area that is enclosed by the monument's inner circle of giant bluestones.
'This central area is empty because it represents the opening to the world, the birth canal,' says Perks. Stonehenge was therefore constructed to honour the Earth Mother for 'giving both life and livelihood'.
As to Stonehenge's alignment with various astronomical events such as the rising of mid-winter and mid-summer sun - discovered by astronomers many years ago - these fit with notions of an Earth Mother partnered with a Sun Father, says Perks. Stonehenge celebrated their association, a place where people celebrated the Sun's closest approach to Earth in summer, while in winter they prayed for the pair to reunite.
It is intriguing theory, though it has failed to impress experts. David Miles, chief archaeologist for English Heritage, which owns the site, said Perks's theory, although interesting, was essentially untestable. 'You can come up with just about any idea to explain a structure like Stonehenge if you stare at it for long enough. And if Stonehenge was built so that it looked like a female sexual organ when viewed from above, how were people supposed to see that? As far as we have been able to tell, they didn't have hot-air balloons in prehistoric times.'
In fact, scientists have shown that Stonehenge was not built in one single act of construction, but was put together over a period of more than 1,500 years in a series of successive modifications and improvements. Nor was it built by the druids, the people most often associated with the site. In fact, many more ancient tribes and societies - individuals attempting to make their impact on the landscape of England - were responsible.
'The archaeologist Jacquetta Hawkes once said that every age gets the Stonehenge it deserves,' added Miles. 'For example, in the 1960s, at the dawn of the computing era, researchers argued that you could use Stonehenge as a giant calculating machine.' Later, in the more mystical New Age, it was argued that the monument was really a spaceport for aliens, while, in the Middle Ages, it was said Stonehenge was built by giants. 'By those standards, this latest idea seems to say something quite odd about the twentyfirst century.'
Ancient history revealed in a circle Quarry discovery may be older than Stonehenge
DAVID MONTGOMERY
A STONE circle discovered on a ridge overlooking the famous Callanish standing stones on Lewis could shed new light on the purpose of the ancient structures, say archaeologists.
The circle is believed to pre-date Stonehenge.
It was found by a team of archaeologists from Manchester University, led by Colin Richards, who has been studying the construction of stone circles for the past two years.
The group found the circle was built on the site of a quarry from which stones for the main Callanish circle probably came - only the second such quarry ever to be found.
Called Na Dromannan, the new circle is about 90ft in diameter - larger than the existing ones - and each stone is between 7ft and 12ft long.
Mr Richards said yesterday the find was both significant because of the unusual method used to construct the circle.
However, he said the fact it also stood on the quarry suggested that it was the process of building the circles that was important.
"What is great from our point of view is that it shows the area where the stones came from may have been significant," he said. "It adds extra weight to the theory that the place the stones came from had a sacred nature.
"The circles may have taken centuries to go up, one by one. People have tended to see these things as temples. But I think the significance of the process was the dragging of the stones and their size and quality."
Callanish comprises nearly 50 neolithic sentinels occupying a commanding position overlooking Loch Roag.
The stones, of Lewisian gneiss, were buried in peat up to about the height of an adult before they were cleared in 1857.
In 1999, scientists working with Historic Scotland carried out tests on the standing stones of Callanish which showed Stonehenge was a baby in comparison to the Scottish site.
They found that the mystical Lewis stones could have been erected more than 500 years before Stonehenge, some time between 2900 and 2600 BC.
Mr Richards said the newly-found stone circle was unusual because it was built on a stony outcrop, so the stones were held up by boulders piled around their base rather than by being sunk into dug "sockets". Over time, all the stones had fallen and become covered with peat.
Much work has been done over the past 80 years on the astronomical orientations built in to the monument at Callanish.
Boyle Somerville suggested in 1913 that the northern avenue of stones was positioned to indicate the rising of the star Capella about 1800 BC.
Callanish has become a focus again for visits at the summer solstice, by those perhaps hoping to see the "shining one" which, according to local legend, walks up the avenue on the midsummer dawn.
The Manchester team arrived on Lewis from Orkney, where they recently discovered the first ever quarry for a stone circle. Although archaeologists have geologically located the mountains the stones to build Stonehenge would have come from, no evidence of the quarry has ever been found.
The team began looking at the Na Dromannan site believing the few partially uncovered stones in that area could also lead them to a quarry for the Callanish standing stones.
"We did find the site that could be the quarry for the main Callanish circle," said Mr Richards. "But when we took the peat away we found Na Dromannan. It was built on top of the area where there has been quarrying."
-Aug 28th
Lasers uncover Stonehenge secrets
Octobr 17, 2003
High-tech lasers have been used to unlock the secrets of Stonehenge.
The work at the ancient site in Wiltshire has already uncovered two carvings which are invisible to the naked eye.
The carvings of bronze axe heads are between four and six inches long.
Similar markings were found at the site in the 1950s, but archaeologists say these are now too badly eroded to be seen.
